Celebrating Black History Month: Charles Young, first African American colonel in US Army

Charles Young, born March 12, 1864 in Mays Lick, Kentucky, was the first African American to achieve the rank of colonel in the US Army. His parents were slaves, but his father escaped slavery by fleeing to Ohio and enlisted in the 5th United States Colored Heavy Artillery Regiment near the end of the Civil War.

Charles entered West Point Academy in 1884 and roomed with the only other black cadet, John Hanks Alexander.  As usual, Young experienced brutal hazing incidents and racism throughout his term.  However, he perservered and graduated in 1889, with the rank of second lieutenant,  becoming the third black man to do so.  Alexander had graduated in 1887. Young served mostly with the Buffalo Soldiers,  first assigned to the Tenth US Cavalry Regiment and then the Ninth US Cavalry Regiment in Nebraska.  

During the Spanish-American War, he was temporarily promoted to major of volunteers in May 1898. He was mustered out of the volunteers in January 1899 and reverted to his rank of first lieutenant.  He was promoted to Captain in the 9th Cavalry Regiment in February 1901. 

By the time of the 1916 Punitive Expedition by the US into Mexico, Young had been promoted to major.  Because of his exceptional leadership of the 10th Cavalry in Mexico he was promoted to lieutenant colonel in July 1916.  In 1917, he was promoted to colonel, the first African American to achieve this rank.

Just before the beginning fo WWI, a white lieutenant did not want to be outranked by a black man and complained to the Secretary of War Newton Baker, who refused to transfer him.  President Woodrow Wilson overturned Baker's decision and transferred the lieutenant. Baker realized that if Young was allowed to fight in Europe, he would be eligible for promotion to brigadier general. That meant he would be commanding white officers, so the War Department placed him on the inactive list due to "high blood pressure".  

In November 1918, Young traveled from Wilberforce, Ohio to Washington DC on horseback to prove his physical fitness and was reinstated to active duty as a colonel.  In 1919, he was assigned as military attache to Liberia.

During a reconnaissance mission in Nigeria in late 1921, Young was taken ill and died of a kidney infection in January 8, 1922.  He was the fourth soldier to receive a funeral in Arlington Memorial Ampitheater.

In February 2020, Young was posthumously promoted to honorary brigadier general in Kentucky by then Governor Andy Beshear. 

Brief history of Col. Charles Young

Celebrating Black History Month: Buffalo Soldiers, first all-black Army regiment

 The Buffalo Soldiers were the first all-black Army regiment established by US Congress in 1866.  During the Civil War, the government formed regiments known as the United States Colored Troops, but they were disbanded in 1865.  The Buffalo Soldiers first participated in wars against the Native Americans, escorting US mail, and bulding roads in the southwestern area and Great Plains regions.  

They participated in two of the largest range wars, battles in the American Old West fought between large cattle rangers against smaller ranchers and farmers who competed for land, water, and livestock. 

Buffalo Soldiers participated in WWI and WWII, but in 1948, President Truman desegrated the US army.  The Buffalo Soldiers were disbanded on December 12, 1951. 

Over its history, more than two dozen soldiers received the Medal of Honor for their service.

Buffalo Soldiers brief history

Celebrating Black History Month: Benjamin O. Davis, Sr., first African American to promoted to brigadier general

Benjamin O. Davis, Sr., born July 1, 1877 in Washington, DC, became the first African American to be promoted to brigadier general in the US Army.  He graduated from Howard University in 1898, and joined the 8th volunteer Infantry for the Spanish-American War, receiving a commission as a first lieutenant.

He joined the regular army as a private and then became a on-commissioned officer.  In 1901, he was appointed second lieutenant of Cavalry.  He served in the Philippine-American War and Wrold War I.  Despite racism and being passed over for promotions, he was promoted to Colonel in 1930.

Davis's accomplishments led him to be promoted to brigadier general and commanded the 4th Cavalry Brigade, 2nd Cavalry Division.  He retired in 1948 and passed away in November 1970.

Celebrating Gay Pride: Wings one of the first same-sex kiss on screen 1927

Academy Award-winning movie Wings, which premiered May 19, 1927 in San Antonio, Texas, has one of the first on-screen same-sex kiss between two men.  Charles 'Buddy' Rogers played Jack Powell, and Richard Arlen played David Armstrong, two fighter pilots in WWI.  During David's death scene, Jack kisses David on the cheek before David passes away.

Although the two characters are not gay and spend the movie fighting over the same women, the scene is touching with the two men caressing and holding each other in their arms. 

"1917" released 2020

Sam Mendes' WWI epic 1917 was released in US theaters January 10, 2020.  It told the harrowing journey as two British soldiers are sent on a mission to deliver a message to halt an attack that could cost 1600 men their lives. It boasted an impressive cast including Colin Firth, Benedict Cumberbatch, and Richard Madden.

Mendes shot the movie such that it looks as it was filmed in only one, continuous shot, a technique invented by Alfred Hitchcock in his movie Rope.

It was nominated for 10 Academy Awards and won Best Achievement in Cinematography, Best Achievement in Visual Effects, and Best Achievement in Sound Editing.

1917 was nominated for 207 awards. Cinematographer Roger Deakins won about 40 awards for his work. 

"Chernobyl" and "1917" each win two Golden Globe Awards 2020

The 77th annual ceremony of the Golden Globe Awards was held January 5, 2020, honoring the best in film and television of 2019. 

1917, the WWI drama that looked like it had been filmed in one very long take, took home two Golden Globes.  It won for Best Motion Picture Drama and Best Director for Sam Mendes.  It also received a nomination for Best Original Score for Thomas Newman.  Knives Out, another favorite of mine, received three nominations as well: Best Musical Or Comedy, Best Actor for Daniel Craig and Ana de Amas for Best Actress.

The HBO miniseries Chernobyl, nominated for four Golden Globes won for Best Miniseries or Television Film and for Best Supporting Actor Performance in a Series, Miniseries or Television Film for Stellan Skarsgard for his role as Boris Shcherbina.  Jared Harris was nominated for Best Actor for his role as Valery Legasov and Emily Watson was nominated for Supporting Actress for her role as Ulana Khomyuk.

Celebrating Black History Month: Boley, Oklahoma, early predominantly black pioneer town 1905

Boley, incorporated in 1905 in what is now Oklahoma, is a predominantly black pioneer town in Okfuskee County, west of Oklahoma City. When it was established, people with Native American ancestry were also among its citizens. That area of Indian Territory was settled by Creek Freedmen, who ancestors had been held as slaves of the Creek at the time of the Indian Removal in the 1830s. The US government negotiated treaties that required tribes to emancipate their slaves and give them tribal membership. 

The Fort Smith & Western Railroad approved a station stop at an ideal location for a township, where the land was used for agricultural purposes.  Boley, Creek Nation, Indian Territory was incorporated in 1905, named for a railroad official J.B. Boley.

In the early 20th century, Boley was one of the wealthiest black towns in the nation, including two banks, three cotton gins, an electric company, and two colleges: Creek-Seminole College and Methodist Episcopal College.  By 1911, its population was over 4000. 

After WWI, the railroad went bankrupt, and since Boley was dependent upon it, the town went bankrupt in 1939 during the Great Depression. 

Today, its population is around 1100 people and is still one of the state's few remaining historic African-American towns.  Pumpsie Green, born in Boley, Oklahoma, was the first African-American to play for the Boston Red Sox. 

Celebrating Native American Heritage Month: Joseph Clark, first Native American to graduate from US Naval Academy

Joseph "Jocko" Clark, born November 12, 1893 in the Cherokee Nation, in Indian Territory, is the first Native American to graduate from the US Naval Academy.  Jocko attended Willie Halsell College, Oklahoma Agriculture and Mechanical College (now OSU), before being appointed to the Naval Academy.  He graduated as ensign when he graduated in 1917. 

He served aboard the USS North Carolina during WWI.  After the war, he graduated as a naval aviator from NAS Pensacola in Florida in March 1925.  

He was stationed on the USS Yorktown when the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor.  In 1944, Clark was promoted to Rear Admiral.  Subsequently, he was assigned to command the USS Hornet and commanded his task group in conjunction with Task Force in the Battle of the Philippine Sea. 

He served during the Korean War and was promoted to Vice Admiral commanding the 7th fleet before retiring from the Navy in December 1953, with the rank of Admiral.  He passed away in July 1971. 

Celebrating Native American Heritage Month: Joseph Oklahombi, most-decorated WWI soldier from Oklahoma

Joseph Oklahombi, born May 1, 1895 in Bokchito, Choctaw Nation, Indian Territory (east of present-day Durant, Oklahoma), served as a Choctaw code talker in WWI.  He was assigned to Company D, First Battalion, 141st Regiment, 71st Brigade of the 36th Infantry Division. While in France in 1918, he and 23 other soldiers attacked an enemy position, capturing 171 Germans, killing about 79 more.  He was awarded the Silver Star with Victory Ribbon, and the Croix de Guerre from France. The awards made him the most decorated WWI soldier from Oklahoma.

He passed away in April 1960 after being hit by a truck.

Elaine Massacre, Arkansas 1919

The summer following the end of World War I in 1919 became known as the Red Summer, in which mobs of white men attacked and killed black men in dozens of cities across the United States.  In Arkansas, landowners used the black man's ability to read or write to their advantage and ensured the black population remained mired in debt.  

Robert Hill, a black farmer from Winchester, Arkansas, founded the Progressive Farmers and Household Union of American (PFHUA) to help farmers get fair pay for their crops and negotiate for better conditions.  

Whites saw this as a prelude to insurrection.  On September 30, 1919, the PFHUA met with about 100 black farmers at a church near Elaine to discuss their options.  They placed armed guards outside to protect the meeting.  When two deputized, white men and a black trustee showed up, shots were fired.  One of the white men was killed and the other wounded.  It has never been determined who fired the first shot, but it ignited a powder keg.

The sheriff called for a posse to capture the suspects and prevent a black insurrection.  As many as 1000 men were estimated to have answered the call.  They attacked and killed black people on sight.  Arkansas Governor Charles Brough called it a Negro uprising, saying black people planned to kill white leaders. 

Official records at the time count eleven black men and five white men killed.  Other estimates claim up to 237 black men killed.  An investigation resulted in indictments against 122 blacks for the murders of the white men.  

Twelve defendants, known as the Arkansas Twelve (or Elaine Twelve) were eventually convicted by all-white juries and sentenced to death in the electric chair.  The NAACP appealed to the Supreme Court, who overturned the death sentences since they determined the men's convictions lacked due process.  In 1923, the Arkansas Twelve were released.

Celebrating Hispanic Heritage Month: David Barkley Cantu, WWI hero and Medal of Honor recipient

David Barkley Cantu, born March 31, 1899 in Laredo, Texas, enlisted in the Texas National Guard in 1917, and entered the US Army in April of that year.  He enlisted under his father's name of Barkley for fear of discrimination.  At the time, Hispanics were segregated to serve in non-combat units, but Congress passed an act to allow Hispanics to fight in May 1917.  

He was assigned to the 155th Infantry in August 1918 and sent to France in WWI.  Later he was assigned to Company A, 356th Infantry, 89th Division.  Just before the Armistice, he volunteered to swim across the Meuse River, behind German lines in France to gather information about the enemy.  He and a sergeant managed to get the information, but Barkley drowned as he swam back across the river.  

He was awarded the Medal of Honor posthumously for his bravery.

Celebrating Black History Month: Frederick McKinley Jones, first African-American to receive the National Medal of Technology

Frederick McKinley Jones, born May 17, 1893 in Cincinnati, Ohio was an African-American inventor who was awarded 61 patents over his lifetime.  After serving in the US Army during WWI, he went back to Hallock, Minnesota where he had lived prior to the war.  He built a transmitter for the new radio station in town.  He invented a device to combine sound with motion pictures, since the local theater could not afford the speaker system for "talkies". 

About 1938, Jones designed a cooling system that made it possible to transport food over long distances without spoiling.  These portable cooling units were used during WWII to preserve blood, medicine and food which were so important to army hospitals.  His inventions helped save thousands of lives.

He passed away in Minneapolis in 1961.  In 1977, he was inducted into the Minnesota Inventors Hall of Fame.  In 1991, then President George Bush awarded the National Medal of Technology to Joseph Numero, who hired Jones in 1930, and Fred Jones, making Jones the first African-American to win the award.

Celebrating Black History Month: Garrett Morgan, African-American inventor of the gas mask

Garrett Morgan, born March 4, 1877 in Claysville, Kentucky, was an African-American inventor who invented the smoke hood, the predecessor to the gas mask.  He noticed firefighters struggling against smoke while they battled fires, which led to his invention of the smoke hood.  Not a success at first, Morgan got the chance to demonstrate his invention in a real-life situation.  

In July 1916, an explosion in a tunnel under Lake Erie left many workers trapped.  Two attempts were made to rescue the men, but the rescuers were overcome by smoke and fumes.  Morgan  arrived on the scene with his brother Frank.  Garrett made four trips helping retrieve survivors and the bodies of those who perished.

By WWI, his smoke hood was refined to carry its own air supply, making it a gas mask.

Morgan also developed hair products for straightening hair and a three-position traffic signal.  He passed away in July 1963.

Celebrating Hispanic Heritage Month: Marcelino Serna, first Hispanic to be awarded the Distinguished Service Cross

Marcelino Serna, born April 26, 1896 in Chihuahua, Mexico, was the most decorated soldier from Texas in WWI, and was the first Hispanic to be awarded the Distinguished Service Cross.

He crossed the Rio Grande entering the US in El Paso, Texas in 1916.  He was working as a farm hand in Denver, Colorado when he was rounded up by federal officials.  To avoid being deported, he joined the Army.  When the Army realized he was a Mexican national, they told him he did not have to fight, but he chose to stay.  For his actions at Saint-Mihiel, Meuse-Argonne, he was awarded the Distinguished Service Cross, the second highest military award.  He was also awarded the Purple Heart with oak leaf cluster and the World War I Victory Medal, among numerous awards from France.

He passed away in El Paso, Texas in 1992.

Celebrating Hispanic Heritage Month: Luis Esteves, first Hispanic graduate of US Military Academy

Luis Raul Esteves, born April 30, 1893 in Puerto Rico, was the first person of Hispanic heritage to graduate from the US Military Academy in West Point and was the founder of the Puerto Rico National Guard.

He graduated from West Point in 1915, with Dwight Eisenhower and Omar Bradley.  He obtained rank of Second Lieutenant and assigned to the 23rd Infantry Regiment.

He served in the 8th Infantry Brigade under General Pershing in El Paso, Texas.  He was promoted to First Lieutenant during the onset of the Battle of Columbus in June 1916.

When Esteves was promoted to Captain, he helped organize the 23rd Battalion, composed of Puerto Ricans, stationed in Panama during World War I.  That is when he saw a need for a Puerto Rican National Guard.  His request was approved and in 1918 he was promoted to Major.  By 1919, the first regiment of the Puerto Rican National Guard was formed.

He held the position of Adjutant General until he retired in 1957.  He passed away in March 1958.

Celebrating Black History Month: Eugene Bullard, first African-American military pilot

Eugene Bullard, born October 9, 1895 in Columbus, Georgia, was the first African-American pilot, who flew for France during World War I.  When he was a teenager, he stowed away on a German freighter to Aberdeen, Scotland.  He was serving in the 170th French Infantry Regiment, he was wounded in March 1916 during the Battle of Verdun.  He volunteered for the French Air Service, receiving his pilot license in May 1917.

He was promoted to corporal in June, and between September and November 1917, he flew in over twenty combat missions.  When the U.S. entered the war, Bullard tried to join the American forces but was turned down because he was black. He was not discharged until October 1919, after the war had ended.

For his service in the war, France awarded him several medals and military decorations including the Croix de guerre.

Bullard passed away from stomach cancer in October 1961 and is buried in the French War Veteran's section of Flushing Cemetery in Queens, New York.

Book review - "The Radium Girls" by Kate Moore

The Radium Girls: The Dark Story of America’s Shining Women by Kate Moore delves into the lives of the women who painted dials and clocks for the U.S. military during World War I.  The paint they used contained radium, a radioactive substance that glowed in the dark, thus its use for aircraft indicators.  The girls, hired by U.S. Radium Corporation (USRC), were unaware of the dangers of the radium compound they used, and the company reassured them frequently that the substance was perfectly safe.  The girls, mostly teenagers and early-twenty-somethings, developed a technique to make their lines straight.  They put the brushes with the radium compound into their mouth so the bristles could produce the tiny lines required by the company.

Lip…dip…paint.

The girls also painted their fingernails with the compound and put it on their eyelashes, loving the glow-in-the-dark effect it had.  Their jobs were lucrative and they enjoyed having parties and wearing fashionable clothes.  Even after the war ended, there was a demand for radium painted products.

After a few years, some of the women began developing serious health problems and then dying.  It took a while for them, their dentists, and their doctors to make the connection between their jobs and the radium.  Naturally, they went after USRC, whom they claimed knew about the dangers of radium but withheld the information from them.

Naturally, the company did everything it could denying any responsibility and would not claim liability.  The women spent years fighting USRC and time, realizing that they might not live long enough to see justice served.

Moore based her book on a number of interviews with the relatives of the radium girls, and plenty of court records.  Most disturbing, though, was the details in which she describes the deteriorating health of the radium girls, chronicling their rapid declines and suffering to death meticulously.  It got rather stomach-churning in some instances to read what was happening to these women.  In fact, there were times in the book, I thought Moore might be putting too much detail in their symptoms but it does illustrate how poorly these women were treated by their employers, doctors and even townsfolk. 

What is chilling about this book is the corruption of the USRC to deny these girls the lives they should have had all for the sake of making a buck.  The dangers of radium had been known since 1901 when the Curies first discovered it.  The company knew of those dangers but deliberately lied to the girls to cover their complicity.

Sound familiar?

Celebrating National Hispanic Heritage Month: Frederick Riefkohl, first Puerto Rican recipient of Navy Cross

Rear Admiral Frederick Lois Riefkohl, born in Maunabo, Puerto Rico, is the first Puerto Rican to graduate from the US Naval Academy and the first Puerto Rican to be awarded the Navy Cross, the second highest award after the Medal of Honor, for his actions in World War I.

As a lieutenant, Riefkohl served as Commander of the Armed Guard of the USS Philadelphia.  On August 2, 1917, a periscope was sighted and a torpedo passed under the stern of the ship.  A shot was fired, which struck close to the submarine, which then disappeared.  Lt. Riefkohl received the Navy Cross for  his bravery.

After WWI, Riefkohl assumed command of the USS Vincennes during WWII until it was destroyed by the Japanese at the Battle of Savo Island.



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